The Physics Of The Optical Brain - 977 Words

The Optical Brain Did you know about 40% or more of the human brain is thought to involve vision? The brain controls the vision system and without it, seeing is impossible. Even though the eyes is the only tool the body has for seeing the world, vision is not always accurate. Accuracy has nothing to do with the eye itself but how the brain interoperates perception. Examining inside the tiny window of a living eye help us to fully understand the many parts of an eye, and how it functions. Museum of Vision describes how light enters the eye when it bounces off an object creates an image. Only a small amount of image can be seen because the eye has only a tiny window opening. But with the ability to move the eyes, it gives the mind a broader picture. The eyes picks up on the highlighted edges of an object. The light continues to pass through the pupil, making it dilate and the image more focused. Moving towards the back of the eye, a layer that contains cells sensitive to light is called the retina. Cones and rods are cells that sit on the retinas outer layer and absorb distinct bundles of energy. Cones help one perceive color and detail, while rods show black, lights, and whites. Colors make the distinguishing differences in objects when lighting is not enough for the brain. The use of shadows gives one the ability to see 3D.The retina takes that image and makes it appear upside-down and backwards. These lighted cells flip, process the image, and send the information throughShow MoreRelatedPhysics Assignment : Medical Imaging1672 Words   |  7 PagesKathleen Anne Maguire 1/12/2016 Physics Assignment Medical Imaging MDPMS 1. Sound is travelling from material 1 to material 2. The density of material 1 id 25 kg ms-3 and the density of material 2 is 18 kg m-3. The speed of sound in material 1 is 1900 ms-1 and in material 2 is 18 kg m-3. The speed of sound in material 1 is 1900 ms-1 and in material 2 it is 700 ms-1. The acoustic impedance of each material Z= pV Acoustic impedance (Z) Density is (p) Acoustic Velocity (V) ForRead MoreTaking a Look at Mantis Shrimp950 Words   |  4 Pagesapplications of mantis shrimp vision; we must first understand how the eyes of the mantis shrimp work. The compound eye of the mantis shrimp is made up of many ommatidia; â€Å"an ommatidium is like a simple but complete photoreceptor organ consisting of optical components and receptor cells† Most research suggests that the vision experienced by the mantis shrimp is due to three distinct regions in its eye; there is an upper and lower hemisphere separated by the midband; these regions are made of distinctRead MoreScience of Toys669 Words   |  3 Pagesand gyroscopes. A number of optical toys was developed in the early 19th century and it is used as spinning to create moving pictures. One of these is the zoetrope invented in 1834. 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The development of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) LASER’s has revolutionised medical practices and will continue to in the future. One of the CO2 LASER’s functions is for crucial surgery, such as heart or brain procedures as it allows the surgeon to practice preciseness. The complexity and advanced design the LASER allows for the efficient and productive use. Furthermore, this specific type of LASER has evolved over the years and is predicted to continueRead MoreCognitive Psychology Definition Paper1387 Words   |  6 Pagesanthropology, biology, linguistics, neuroscience, and physics (New World Encyclopedia, 2008). Cognitive Psychology has three main approaches: Computational Cognitive Psychology that develops computational models and formal mathematics of human cognition based upon dynamical systems and symbolic representation; Neural Cognitive Psychology, which uses neurobiological methods (e.g., lesion patients) and brain imaging (e.g., MEG, PET, Optical Imaging, fMRI, SPECT, EEG) to have a better understandingRead MoreHuman Experience Is The Fundamental Sense Of Sight1343 Words   |  6 PagesImagine someone who has been blind from birth. Now imagine trying to explain the colour green to this person. It’s impossible, because this person’s conceptual understanding of colour is nonexistent, as their brain has not experienced the fundamental sense of sight and therefore cannot even begin to grasp the idea. The basis of all human experience does not only stem from our senses, but is completely constructed by them. Everything that humans experience is accessed through one or more of the fiveRead MoreThe Eye Is An Extension Of The Human Body2117 Words   |  9 PagesTitle Introduction The eye is one of the most complex parts of the human body. It is so complex and full of nerves, that it can be considered an extension of the brain. That is why, even nowadays, it is still extremely difficult to design a prosthetic that could completely substitute its functions. It is clear then, that the main goal of visual prosthesis is to restore vision in blind individuals, providing stable, safe and long-lasting devices, in parallel with improvement of quality of life, meaningRead MorePsychology : Cognitive Psychology And Psychology1154 Words   |  5 Pages linguistics, biology, physics, and anthropology. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. Recently, cultural and social factors have also become apart of cognitive psychology along with emotion and consciousness. There are many areas of cognitive psychology that I believe strengthen our understanding of our bodies and brains. The three main approachesRead More Physics of Semiconductors Essay842 Words   |  4 PagesSemiconductors can be elements such as Germanium, Zinc, and Silicon, or compounds. Also, some semiconductor materials can be intrinsic (pure semiconductors) or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor is normally used in conjunction with thermal or optical excitement to raise electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. An extrinsic semiconductor is formed by doping the intrinsic semiconductor material with a VERY small number of impurity atoms. Doping takes an intrinsic semiconductor

The Holocaust During World War II - 1651 Words

The holocaust was the genocide of European Jews and other groups by the Nazis during World War II. It lasted from 1933 to 1945, as a horrible time in history. Approximately 11 million people were killed, and almost 1 million of those killed were innocent children. It is well-known that there were a number of survivors, yet not many people know exactly how these people survived. The most known thing about the holocaust are the concentration camps. A concentration camp is defined by, â€Å"a place where large numbers of people, especially political prisoners or members of persecuted minorities, are deliberately imprisoned in a relatively small area with inadequate facilities, sometimes to provide forced labor or to await mass execution.† The definition of this helps the understanding of the type of treatment for the Jews during the holocaust. When Jews arrived at the concentration camps, they were separated from their families. Men and women would be separated, with the children accompanying their mothers. These prisoners were forced to shave their heads, remove their clothes, and receive a uniform. A young girl named Mel, from Czechoslovakia, explained this experience by saying, â€Å"We all looked alike... Rich, poor, young, old. We shared the same fate as in no way before. I hardly recognized my father. Friends would pass you by. It was a nightmare.† When the prisoners arrived, they didn’t know what to expect. They were immediately forced into hard labor. An article from theShow MoreRelatedThe Holocaust During World War II1503 Words   |  7 PagesThe Holocaust was an event that took place from 1933 to 1945 in Germany. During this time, Adolf Hitler was in charge, resulting in the prejudice actions that are well written in history. Facing economic, social, and political oppression, thousands of German Jews wanted to flee, but found few countries wanting to take them in. Eventually, under Hitler’s leadership, some 6 million Jews we re murdered during World War II. In this time period the Nazi’s waged a war against the Jews and other races thatRead MoreThe Holocaust During World War II1356 Words   |  6 PagesDuring World War II, the world witnessed unspeakable acts of violence, particularly that of the Holocaust. The Holocaust was a mass genocide primarily of, but not limited to, the Jewish population in Germany, and other countries that were controlled by Germany. From 1941 to 1945, the Jews were targeted and methodically murdered because of Hitler’s views of his Utopian society made up of an Aryan a race. Hitler fought to create this society through creating an anti-Semitic movement, his motivationRead MoreThe Holocaust During World War II927 Words   |  4 Pagesshaped the world into what it is today. With the passing of yet another Veterans Day, people were reminded of the extraordinary sacrifices made by ordinary men and women who were unfortunate enough to have lived during times when th eir nations were at war. Many ordinary citizens lost their lives as a result of the war, just as soldiers did. While some survivors simply lived out their post war lives, others survived and influenced the world. One person who survived the atrocities of the Holocaust duringRead MoreThe Holocaust During World War II1177 Words   |  5 PagesThe Holocaust is well known around the world, and many people do not realize the devastation and the technology that was used in that time. What we knew before was that the Holocaust resulted in the death of six million jews, and was controlled by the Nazi Regime. Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Germany and came up with the Final Solution, a plan to exterminate all the people of Jewish faith or race during World War II. This then brought in the concept of concentration camps. Concentration campsRead MoreThe During World War II And Holocaust897 Words   |  4 PagesThere are many questions as to why the Nazis decided to do what they did to the Jews, gays, and ill during World War II and Holocaust. Nazis after the Holocaust had been interviewed by psychologists, such as Leon Goldensohn and psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich, to see and try to better understand the reasons behind Fascism and why these acts were performed. Leon Goldensohn was an American psychiatrist and also one of the prison psychiatrists at Nuremberg that helped perform the interviews on prisonersRead MoreThe Holocaust During World War II1920 Words   |  8 PagesIn his novel, Night, Elie Wiesel recounts the horrific experiences that he faced as a survivor of the Holocaust during World War II. The following passage presents the impossible struggle to maintain a decent quality of life in the face of war: We received no food. We lived on snow; it took the place of bread. The days resembled nights, and the nights left in our souls the dregs of their darkness. The train rolled slowly, often halted for a few hours, and continued. It never stopped snowing. We remainedRead MoreThe Holocaust During World War II901 Words   |  4 Pagesour elders, because they have authority over the world since they have been here the longest. We were raised to comply with the demand of someone who had authority over us. According to Patricia Werhane (1), â€Å"In the early1960’s Stanley Milgram undertook his noteworthy study of human obedience to authority. Puzzled by the question of how otherwise decent people could knowingly contribute to the massive genocide of the Holocaust during World War II, Milgram designed an experiment that sought to causeRead MoreThe Holocaust During World War II1934 Words   |  8 Pagesthe Holocaust during World War II, which not only stimulated religious unrest in E urope, but also the rest of the world. With the German Dictator, Adolf Hitler, and his rise to power in 1933, a period of despair and fear for the Jewish population throughout Europe erupted. As Adolf Hitler commenced his plan to build the perfect German race, he set forth the motion of a mass extinction of the Jewish population, known as The Holocaust. The Holocaust lasted from 1933 to the end of World War II and hadRead MoreThe Holocaust During World War II1720 Words   |  7 PagesIrania De La O Grade 8 The Holocaust Eleven million innocent people died and many did not know what they did or why it was happening to them (Rice 11). The Holocaust happened because of the Germans after World War 2 thought that the reason that their economy was falling down was because of Jewish people. The Holocaust followed the Ladder of Prejudice is a started with speech and moved its way up to â€Å"The Final Solution† also known as extermination. Hitler did not start with killing Jews. He killedRead MoreThe Holocaust And The Nazi Regime During World War II Essay1763 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction The Second World War is seen by the modern world to be the most famous war that shaped the communities of the world today, but for the Jewish community in Europe at the time this was the war to fight for their own existence. The Holocaust was the systematic extinction of six million Jews by the Nazi regime during World War 2. Of the millions of Jewish people that lost their lives there were many that did resist and did escape the Nazism and Nazi racial policy that was conducted on the

Fiduciary and Company free essay sample

Fiduciary Duty of Directors According to the general law and the Corporations Act ss181 -184, as fiduciaries, the directors must have the fairness, loyalty and good faith when they implement the discretions and powers entitled to them. They cannot use their position of trust to benefit themselves at the expenses of the business without the company’s consent and full knowledge. In other words, we can say since the directors are acting on behalf of their company, they owe the duties of loyalty and good faith due to the fiduciary relationship with the companies. In addition, refer to the Corporation Act ss180, and the case of Percival v Wright 1902, the directors owed duties to the company but not shareholders individually. On the other hand, in depth, the fiduciary obligations of the directors can be divided into four aspects: 1. Directors have the duty to act in good faith for the interests of the company This duty arises from the general law- especially from principles of fiduciary law and ss181 and 184 of the Corporations Act. Under this duty, the directors should practice their bona fide in the way that they think is the interests of the company. Re Smith amp; Fawcett Ltd. This means the directors should give suitable considerations to the interests of the company as a whole in their decisions making process. However, there is difficulty in identifying which stakeholders should be considered to be part of â€Å"the company† for the purpose of this duty since these stakeholders concerned may include the company members, different classes of shareholders, creditors, employees and communities etc. For the company member, refer to Darvall v North Sydney Brick amp; Tile Co Ltd (1988), the directors should have the duty to think of the interests of both the company as a commercial entity and also the company members. For different classes of shareholders, refer to the law case: Mills v Mills (1938), the directors should make the decision which was fair as among the different classes of shareholders. For the creditors of company, according to the case Walker v Wimborne (1976), the judicial opinion has held that under certain circumstances (the company is insolvent or nearing insolvency) it is the obligations for the directors, in releasing their duties to their own companies, but instead to consider the interests of the companies’ creditors. While in Parke v Daily news (1962) UK, it was held that it is irrelevant for the directors to consider the interests of the employees before the interests of the company as whole. Only in the case that the payments to employees and also the charitable and political donations under the situation that the company is viable and there is no signs showing the company is going to cease trading, then the payments may be beneficial to the company. 2. Directors have the duty use powers for proper purposes This duty arises under the fiduciary law as part of the general law and ss181 and 184 of the Corporations Act. Under this duty, the directors should manage a company and exercise the powers according to the company’s internal rules and the Corporations Act: like s198A listing the powers of directors and s198C listing powers of managing directors. In order to identify if the directors has fulfilled the duty, we will compare the legal purpose and the actual purpose of the directors’ power. The legal purpose refers to the intended purpose of the power that normally found in the internal rules of the company. These rules usually confine the circumstances in which the power is to be exercised. In the case that there are absence of any guidance from the internal rules, the type of company, its internal structure and activities will be used a foundation to determine the legal purpose. While for the actual purpose, it is saying the actual reason or purpose for exercising the power. This related to what the directors subjectively believe at the time they exercised the power. Also, honest or well intended actions by directors do not equal to the proper use of their power. For example, in Howard Smith Ltd v Ampol petroleum Ltd (1974) AC 821, Lord Wilberforce held that if the predominate purpose of the director to allot the shares was to defeat a hostile takeover or to dilute the holdings of a particular shareholder, the act would be invalid. Same principal could be found in the case Hogg v Cramphorn Ltd (1967) Ch 254, in which the Court held that directors who dilute the value of the stock in order to prevent a hostile takeover are breaching their fiduciary duty to the company. 3. Directors have the duty to retain discretions According to the general law, there are two duties on the directors in respect of their discretions. The first one is the duty to exercise an active discretion which states that the directors should not listen to the suggestion of another person without own consideration. The second one is the duty to retain their discretions which state that directors cannot delegate their responsibilities or shackle the implementation of directions without the authority. In simply, shareholders have the right to contract on the way they can vote in the future. However, same case cannot apply on directors even there is no personal benefit involved. In Thorby v Goldberg (1964) HCA, it was held that if the directors negotiated a contract on behalf of a company, they should bona fide consider it in the interests of the company as a whole that whether the transaction should be gone forward. In Re Country Pallative Loan amp; Discount Co; Cartmell’s Case (1874) Uk, it was held that the directors should not delegate its discretion to other persons without the appropriate authority assigned. In addition, the scope of this duty may be limited by the company’s rules which may permit the directors to appoint agents, delegate functions to a managing directors or delegate an issue to a committee etc. 4. Directors have the duty to avoid conflict of interests The duty arises from the general law, as part of fiduciary law and ss182 -184 of Corporation Act. Under this duty, the directors must act in the way that they do not put themselves in a position where the possibility of conflict or bias in their actions would be emerged. The issues of conflict of interest may emerge in the circumstances including: a. directors enter to a contract with a company he or she is appointed as director b. directors derived profit from their post c. directors receive a bribe or secret commission in exchange for securing a certain course of action d. directors misuse the company funds e. directors take up opportunities which belong to the company f. directors use the confidential company information for their own benefit Many cases have mentioned the duty of directors concern with the conflict of interest. For example, in Aberdeen Railway Co v Blaikie Brothers (1854), it was held that if a director had an interest in a company transaction, the transaction is voidable if the company has the intention and any profit get by the director is subjected to recover by the company. In Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver (1942), The House of Lords held that a director is in breach of his duties if he takes advantage of an opportunity that the company would have the interest in but was not able to get any advantage from the opportunity . Hence, it is the duty of directors to evade any possibility of a conflict of interest and should impose enough disclosure of their actions according to the requirements of both general law and Corporations Act. Fiduciary Duty of Promoters There is no accepted definition of the term promoter but according to the case Erlanger v New Sombrero Phosphate Company (1878), promoters are the persons who use their hand to create and mould out a company. They are responsible to decide the starting time of the business’ existence as well as the outline of the operation model of the business, hence, promoter is generally defined as a person or an entity that takes active steps in the formation, organization or financing of a corporation. However, since the promoter is such a crucial person in the creation of the company, according to the Australian general law, promoter is in a fiduciary relationship with the business. In other words, once a person is identified as promoter of a company, he or she automatically has the fiduciary duties to the business. In depth, promoter has the obligation to avoid any actions that would create conflict with the interests of those to whom his obligations extend to and to do those things that would best serve their interests. Therefore, the fiduciary duties of the promoter lie in following aspects: 1. The promoter has the duty not to make any secret profit at the cost of the company. 2. The promoter has the duty to provide full explanation to the company for the benefit for any property he would purchase with the intention of selling the property to Company for a profit afterwards. . The promoter has the duty not to swindle the company by actively hiding any affairs relating to the company. 4. The promoter has the duty not to hide his personal interests through a nominee. Among the above duties, the most important one is the duty not to make a secret profit at the expense of the Company. Secret profit refers to enter into a transaction on the directors own behalf and afterwards, selling the related property to the company at a profit, without making disclosure of the profit to the company concerned. Refer to the case of Fairview Schools Sdn. Bhd v Indrani a/p Rajaratnam (No1)(1998), it was held that without the consent and knowledge of the company, the promote is not allowed to make any secret profit beyond the promotion of the company. Therefore, the promoters need to disclose to the company with any interest they have in any transaction that are proposed to be involved by the company. In other words, the bottom-line requirement from promoters is that they must not be opaque in their dealings with the Company. On the other hand, if the promoter is found to be breaching the fiduciary duties, three remedies can be adopted: 1. Rescission: In the case that a Company has entered into a Contract with the promoter and it is later discovered there had been no enough disclosure, the Company has the right to rescind the contract. Like in the case Erlanger v New Sombrero Phosphate Company (1878), the court held that as there had been no adequate disclosure of the conditions of the sale of the land, so the Company was entitled to rescind the contract. 2. Recovery of the Secret Profit: A company is entitled to recover the profit from promoters if they breach their duties. Like in the case of Gluckstein v Barnes, the court held that the company has the right to recover the secret profit concerned with the redemption of the company’s debentures from the promoters since there were in breach of their duties as promoters. 3. Claim the damages for breach of fiduciary duties: The promoter is exposed to pay the damage to the company for breaching their fiduciary duties. In the case of RE Leeds amp; Hanley Theatres of Varieties Ltd. 1902), the court held that the promoters had fraudulently omitted to disclose the profit made by them on the selling of the property to the company, therefore, the promoters needed to pay damages to the company which was equivalent to the amount of profit made by the promoters. Fiduciary Duties Between Partners Generally, a partnership involves people carrying on a common business for profit. Since the partn ers have mutual confidence in combining efforts for the success of the partnership, the partners owe fiduciary duties to one another in the matters related to the partnership. This kind of relationship, similar to the fiduciary obligations of directors, is one of trust loyalty and confidence. These duties are regarded to impose upon the partners the standard to act for the common benefit of all partners in all transactions relating to the business. Refer to the case Meinhard v Salmon, the New York Courts of Appeal held that partners in a business owe fiduciary obligations to each other where business chances arises during the course of the partnership. In details, the fiduciary duties between partners include following aspects: 1. Partners have the duties on full disclosure Partners are required to disclose all the information relating to the business to other partners. With this fiduciary relation, if a partner gets any benefits from the partnership, he or she must share them with other partners according to the terms of partnership agreement. The disclosure includes different aspects like contracts made, contributions made, the availability of business opportunity etc. This disclosure requirement is especially crucial in the case that the business may be sold to one of the partners or to an outsider. 2. Partners have the duties to avoid conflict of interest As fiduciaries, partners must not put themselves in a situation there will be any conflict of interest between the business and themselves. They also cannot put their own interest s before those of the business. Moreover, they cannot perform actions that are not in the best interests of the business. 3. Partners have the duty to avoid conflict of duty As fiduciaries, partner cannot have conflicting fiduciary duties between the business and themselves. In other words, they must not put themselves in a situation where there will be any conflict between their duty as partners and their personal duty. 4. Partners have the duty to maintain good faith Partners have the obligation to act in good faith to other partners and the business. This obligation continues throughout the life of the partnership. Even when relations between partners are in tension, the partners still need to implement the standard of good faith at the highest level in all transactions relating to the partnership business. 5. Partners have to duty to avoid taking advantage of being a fiduciary As fiduciaries, partners must not take advantage of their position to make any personal profit. Opportunities for partners may emerge because of their position and it is their obligation for them to make known to all partners any profit they receive as a result of being in the position they are in. They must account for any private profits made without the consent of the other partners. Actually, we can say how far are the fiduciaries duty owed between partners is not limitless. The duty changes depending on different environment as well as what have been stated in the partnership agreement. Conclusion From the above elaboration, it is not difficult to observe that the fiduciary obligation in the Australian law is similar to the general body of elementary fiduciary law found in English Common law. No matter in which kind of relationship mentioned above, â€Å"loyalty† amp; â€Å"prohibition against self-dealing† can be regarded as the core components of the duties. This is the reason why a duty is only accepted to be a fiduciary duty if it is a duty of loyalty. Therefore, in Australia, fiduciary duties do not occur in many relationships but only in certain ones that require one party to have entrusted power over another at the aim that the services are to be completed including the three kinds of relationship illustrated above.

Personal Approach to Counseling Essay Example

Personal Approach to Counseling Essay Personal Approach to Counseling Todd J. Schmenk, M. Ed. Rhode Island College Author Note Todd J, Schmenk, M. Ed. , Department of Counseling, Educational Leadership, and School Psychology Department, Feinstein School of Education and Human Development, Rhode Island College. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Todd J. Schmenk, M. Ed. , Department of Counseling, Educational Leadership, and School Psychology Department, Feinstein School of Education and Human Development, Rhode Island College, Providence, RI 02908 E-mail: [emailprotected] om 1. Key Concepts In dealing with individuals and in my experience and studies over the years I have come to the conclusion that a person’s development and interactions with the world is a compilation of internal adaptations to external stimulus. As the philosopher Ken Wilber put it â€Å" A person’s network-logic is a dialectic (an investingating or discussing the truth of opinions) of whole and part. As many d etails as possible are checked; then a tentative big picture is assembled; it is checked against further details, and the big picture readjusted. And so on indefinitely, with ever more details constantly altering the big picture—and vice versa. † (Wilber, 2000, Loc. 213-15) Drawing upon this broad but key ideology, any approach to counseling or psychotherapy, in my opinion, would have to be sure to address these internal processes and conclusions in order to help an individual deal with and achieve balance when an imbalance has occurred. In order to do so, this would mean incorporating upon several of the key components of made by astute individuals who have helped to define the various aspects of these processes. Of great influence to my approach would be Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development which considers the impact of external factors from family, specifically the parents, to cultural and societal influences and their effects on an individual’s personality (ego) development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s theory, every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life cycle. (Arlene F Harder, 2011) At each transition, there is the possibility that the individual may falter and develop less than optimal approaches for dealing with external stimuli. We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Approach to Counseling specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Approach to Counseling specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Approach to Counseling specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Going a step further in identification and specificity of those external influences and their effects on an individuals ego development are the works of Dr. Clare Grave, Dr. Chris Cowen, and Dr. Donald Beck, who have compiled their observations in their theory which they refer to as â€Å"Spiral Dynamics†. Dr. Graves in the early 1950’s refered to this new emerging approach to human understanding as a biopsycho-social system. In his words he defined the term as: â€Å"Bio† for the neurology and chemical energy of life and the organismic part of us. The â€Å"Psycho† for the variables of personality and life expereinces, our temperments and sense of self and relationships to others, the â€Å"Social† for the collective energy in group dynamics and culture as the interpersonal domain influences human behavior in collective settings ranging from small groups and families to corporations and entire societies, and the â€Å"System† for the interdependence and action/reaction of these three upon one another in a coherent whole according to principles laid out in General Systems theory and other approaches to how things work and interact. (Cowen, Todorovic, Lee, 2001) Or in more simple terms: â€Å"Briefly, what I am proposing is that the psychology of the mature human being is an unfolding, emergent, oscillating, spiraling process, marked by progressive subordination of older, lower-order behavior systems to newer, higher-order systems as man’s existential problems change. † (Graves, 1959) Where Er ikson, Graves, Beck, Cowen and a good number of other therapists saw he quantifyable development of human beings as the unfolding of stages, I also look to Ken Wilber who has devised a â€Å"Integral Theory† that looks for underlying connections between all these pieces of the same puzzle, drawing upon the available schools of thought in psychology, religion, philosphy, and other related fields, in an attempt to relate them to each other. One of Wilber’s greatest contributions to the field of psychology and counseling is by demonstrating that the various practitioners have all been studying several lines of development, yet collapsing these observations together as if they were one. By doing so, creating illisionary camps of opposing thought that are believed to be mutually exclusive. Wilber has shown that all of these lines coexist and need to be acknowledged in order for the treatment to have a larger impact. This is not to say that all approaches to pyschotherapy do this, many of the newer theories and approaches to therapy have begun to see and adapt this idea pulling from various modes of applications, such as dialectical, but few do this as broadly. An example of this can be seen in the following illustration: [pic] Wilber explains: And there are multiple paths or lines of development. It has been demonstrated that each level of development has a different worldview, with different perceptions, modes of space and time, and moral motivations (discoveries upon which the work of researchers from Maslow to Kohlberg to Loevinger to Gilligan would depend); he showed that reality is not simply given but is in many important ways constructed. (Wilber, 2000, loc 577-82) Given this explaination, Freud’s view could be seen and the identification of the psycho-sexual line of development, whereas Maslow focused on the needs line , Grave focus on an individual’s world-view, and Gilligan focused on the line of ego development. All equally important. Given this, my intake form that an individual would fill out combined with information collected during sessions should provide the basis from where to move forward in choosing the appropriate psychotherautic model for treatment increasing the effectivess and positive outcome in alleviating the individual’s current condition. This conclusion is echoed in this course’s text in that â€Å" Effective theories are grounded in an understanding of human development. They provide a framework for gathering and organizing information and exploring personality. (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010, loc. 972-73) Since I have the most experience in dealing with individuals drawing from health education and promotion theories that are similar to Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) methods, this would be the area I would most often begin. In SFBT, one of the core objectives â€Å" is to increase people’s hope and optimism by creating expectancy for change, n o matter how small. In this way, people become more aware of what is working rather than what is not. † (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010, loc. 1000) Often times I have found that when people seek my services, they do so because something has changed, yet they are unaware of such a change, and that that change has been percieved as a negative effect by that individual. A common example of this is a person in their late 20’s or early 30’s who is distressed over a sudden increase in weight. There are many factors that can contribute to this, but a common theme I have observed is that the individual had continued to eat as if they were still an athlete, a teenager, or in their early 20’s. Their eating habits remained constant, however, their activity levels and the stage of their body’s development (they are no longer growing) have not, having an undesirable and unintentional impact. While this example is dealing with obersavable behaviors (activity, nutrition), the same can also be applied to an individuals mental constructs, schema’s, or beliefs. People often relate present expereinces with ones that look similar to what they have encountered in the past, yet the course their responses produces different results. One of the other great strengths is that SFBT focuses on the present and the future rather that on the past and allows an individual to focus on positive change. (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010, Loc. 10986-87) This would be especially important in the first few sessions since I would want to alleviate the immediate cause of distress. Using the above example, looking at the person’s belief and coming up with goals, such as using a nutrition journal to increase awareness, would be a good place to begin. Even small insights based upon this simple exercise can greatly motivate and increase this individual’s expectancy for further changes. Next I would turn to Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) because of its structure and its use of reason to challenge irrational beliefs. I love the outline presented in the class text because, in my experience, I have found that having a plan tends to increase the likelihood of compliance and therefore success. The typical session will almost always include the following tens steps 1. Review old business from the previous session – if it is the first session, than I would review the intake form to ensure accuracy and begin to develop the therapeutic alliance. 2. Check up on the mood, behavior, symptoms, and medication. 3. Elicit new business, especially and major life changes 4. Follow up on homework 5. Establish the agenda for the sessions 6. Do the work according to the ABCDEF format 7. Summarize the work that was done 8. Assign new homework 9. Obtain feedback on the session 10. Close the session (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010, loc. 8046): This is not to say that I would be inflexible and if the situation presented itself, would even incorporate the use of Carl Roger’s more free-flowing client centered approach, but I would not start a session off that way. I have tried this type of approach and have found that for an individual who is looking for an immediate solution and possibly some guidance, that type of approach if used right from the start can be frustrating and de-motivating. I would also use the concepts found within REBT to help teach clients about rational and irrational thinking so that they could identify, dispute, and modify their irrational beliefs. By doing so, the individual should be able to develop a more rational and integrated approach to life. Unlike SFBT, which focuses on goal setting and problem solving, REBT dictates that I would need to go beyond this approach to enable the individual to establish more balanced, logical, and rewarding lives. (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. Loc. 7968) For emotionally based complaints that do not seem to be able to be addressed using SFBT and REBT, I would consider utilizing an emerging approach that has some components of Gestalt therapy, but it also based heavily on the concepts of Freud’s work called Core Energetics. The work of Core Energetics requires that clients want to dissolve their original wounds and evolve into their authentic selves, heart and soul. It is an emotional focused practice. It first appeared in the 70’s introduced by Dr. Pierrakos who had based this new methodology upon observations made by Wilhelm Reich, a colleague and disciple of Freud, about the connection between the body and psychological/emotional health and dysfunction. Black, 2004, 120-23) He believed that his clients’ bodies were tensed and distorted as a result of blocked energy and used physical approaches to alleviate or encourage an emotional discharge that often produced insight in to what was bothering them. I have experienced this type of therapy and have found it useful, especially when I was not completely aware of what was truly bothering me, though I would need further training before I was comfortable in implementing this type of approach. 2. Signs of Change As I worked with an individual there would be signs that I would be looking for that would help identify if my approach was having the desired effect. As reflected in our text: As they become cognizant of the possibilities for positive change, their empowerment and motivation increase correspondingly, creating a beneficial circle; positive change fuels people’s belief that change can happen, which enhances their motivation and efforts to change, which in turn leads to more positive changes. (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010, loc. 11001) When it comes to SFBT, simple indications would be compliance, the client creating and meeting the goals that were agreed upon, an increased motivation to be in action, and their reported belief that they were getting something out of our sessions. When it came to REBT, one of the advantages of the approach is the scaled questions that would be attached to their irrational beliefs. Those issues causing the most turmoil should be seen over time to diminish moving down scale on a scale of 1 – 10, where 10 would be most distressful to 1 being the least. If I find that the individual is still holding on to these irrational beliefs and being negatively affected by them, it would be because that they are still active and the individual was still using them (still unaware) and an adjustment would be made. Two other themes I would look for in working with the individual would be self-acceptance and awareness. The REBT approach â€Å"suggests that emotional difficulties often are found in people with conditional self-acceptance and that they value themselves because of their accomplishments rather than because of their basic worth as a person. † (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. 5828-30) In other words, for many, when they have a set-back or fail at something, they believe it is because they are bad or a failure. (conditions of self-worth) Those who were able to differentiate and see these differences (and display behaviors congruent with their statements) I would see as both making progress and as becoming more self-aware. By being aw are of their approaches to life, they would then be able to make changes, become fully self-expressed or authentic in the moment and see the possibilities available to them. . The Role of the Therapist and the Nature of the therapist-client relationship Given my experience over the last 15 years in dealing with individuals with a variety of health concerns and now moving to a more broad based look at an individual’s over-all mental health and its effect on those health issues, my approach and role in a therapist-client relationship would tend to be eclectic, integrating different treatment strategies as needed. Interactions and assessments with the individual would help to clarify what is most likely the main issue and which counseling theory or theories and the tools provided in each would best increase the chances for the most favorable outcome. With that being said – all of my approaches would begin by ensuring the strong development of a therapeutic alliance as illustrated by several of the fields most prominent therapists since the formalization of this idea by Carl Rogers. Therapist traits such as empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence (or being genuine with a client) create the conditions necessary to develop a more effective alliance between clinician and client. Therapy sessions then primarily act as a place where an individual can explore uncomfortable emotional experiences and learn or relearn more constructive ways of dealing with them. (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. Loc 1186) Even though the initial approach to REBT and SFBT tend to be more structured and more formal, it is still possible to create a warm, safe space or clearing within these contexts in order to foster re-education, insight, reframing, challenging irrational beliefs, and personal growth. By doing so it is almost inevitable that change will occur and that it will â€Å"have a ripple effect on many aspects of the client’s life. (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. Loc 11142) In REBT and SFBT the therapist often assumes many roles such as an educator, a mentor, a role model, and a coach using a wide variety of interventions, tools, and resources. Some of these tools I would bring into sessions would be identifying the situations and utilizing the three column technique, using a dysfunctional thought log or other journal and asking questions like â€Å"Between now and our first session, I want you to notice the things that happen to you that you would like to keep happening in the future? † or â€Å"What changes have occurred since the person first made the appointment? † all the time utilizing active listening skills, portraying empathy, offering reassurance, and making suggestions when they are relevant. When I was in session, I would keep all the above in mind in regards to the following: Current research suggests that treatment approaches and interventions are just one factor in producing change. In a landmark study, Miller, Duncan, and Hubble (1997) found that clients attributed 40% of the change they experienced in treatment to extratherapeutic factors (including people’s internal resources and events in their lives), 30% to the therapist–client relationship, 15% to particular techniques and interventions, and 15% percent to their hope and expectation of positive change. Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. Loc 1043) which demonstrates the power of the therapeutic alliance and the need to be seen as both an expert, a guide, an advocate, and as most importantly, another human being just like them. 4. Goals Given the processes of the therapies I would tend to implement, I believe that the amount of sessions that would be needed in order to achieve the desired outcome and to alleviate their current concerns would be six to eight sessions with 80% of clients concluding treatment by the 20th session and most of their positive changes occurring by the 8th session. Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. Loc. 11093) Before meeting with the client and then continuing the practice before any sequential sessions, I would use a decision tree to determine what interventions to use next with my client. Part of REBT is starting each session off by checking in with them to see what was happening in their life and what they wished to see happen more often to move towards major life changes. One of the major concepts of REBT is that Clinicians teach clients about rational and irrational thinking; help people identify, dispute, and modify their irrational beliefs; and facilitate their efforts to develop a more rational philosophy of life. Although problem solving is part of treatment, REBT clinicians go beyond problem solving and enable people to establish more balanced, logical, and rewarding lives. (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010, Loc. 8079-82) This would be done using the six-step ABCDEF structured format that would meet the requirements described above. In brief – we would look to identify the external source of discomfort, take a look at the belief about that stimulus and its effect, look at the consequences the belief was having on their life, devise ways to dispute this belief, what the effect would be once the belief had been realigned, and an exploration of the new feelings and behaviors that would be a result of this process. (ensuring motivation) (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. Loc. 8084-8138) Other tools I described earlier would be the use of behavioral tracking and awareness enhancing practices such as a log or journal. When it comes to SFBT, some of the most important interventions would be the use of the miracle question which would implement the use of scaling to measure change and the use of suggested solutions, but would also focus on identifying exceptions, looking for places in a person life where things worked. For instance, if a person was having a difficult time and was feeling burned out because of the work requirements, exploration of times when they had a good day and what they did differently should provide their own solution to the kind of plan that should be developed further in order to have that exception become the norm. If the person had a difficult time identifying such a situation, there is where SFBT would tend to suggest activities to help the person identify such solutions or suggest ways they could try to alter the situation. Simple questions like â€Å"What is different about the times when the difficulty does not happen? †, When is the problem less severe? , and How is that different from the way you handled this the last time it occurred? † (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010, Loc 11155) would all be ways to explore this further and find the individuals strengths or effective ways in which they have dealth with similar situation before. Once identified, those traits and skills would be exemplified and then practiced so that they become a new behavior. Tony Schwartz, the author of The Power of Full Engagement: Managing Energy, Not Time, Is the Key to High Performance and Personal Renewal has broadened this approach laying out the four main areas that an individual should look when trying to create new rituals, ones that will over-ride and replace older dysfunctional approaches. He focuses on the following: At the same time, we must build the four underlying capacities that make excellence possible: strength and endurance (physical), high positive energy (emotional), control of attention (mental), and a compelling sense of purpose (spiritual). (Schwartz, 2005, Loc. 143) What is so great about this book is that it addresses many of the main issues around performance, whether it is at work or in dealing with the family and aligns well with both REBT and SFBT. The main underlying message in the book could be summed up best by â€Å"It’s not the number of hours we work that determines how much value we create. Rather it’s the quantity and quality of energy we bring to whatever hours we work. † (Schwartz, 2005, Loc 161) This enderlying theme echos the beliefs of both systems. From a REBT perspective – it addresses the â€Å"performance equals worth† irrational belief and from a SFBT it focuses on the positive aspects and strengths an individual uses to maintain their energy levels, including understanding what values are of the upmost importance to them. 5. How this approach might apply to diverse groups Given that every individual – regardless of race, culture, gender, or orientation would need to proceed through the same stages of development and face similar transitional challenges at each stage, I believe that my approach would be useful in most therapy situations that were targeted at mid to high functioning individuals. I do not see this approach as being as effective with those who have a compromised perception of reality such as those who are currently in a psychopathic state, but even there this approach may be useful once those individuals have been stabilized. SFBT and REBT are both mental approaches to dealing with current issues which are both cross-cultural both in their acceptance and application. Since some cultures are more sensitive to talking about their emotions, my approach, using these methodologies should help to alleviate and overcome this cultural reluctance. When it comes to cross-cultural or diverse populations, I also include gender communication differences, religious orientation, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and even political. Both methodologies have been shown to be effective in dealing with such diversity. With that being said, given that I am a white male, coming from German-Slavic culture, with a hetero-sexual orientation, a higher level of education, and more of an urban ideology, I would expect that this perception may also be seen as a weakness in dealing with some individuals, especially depending upon why they were seeking my services in the first place. For instance, a woman suffering from mental issues surrounding a traumatic experience, such as rape, would most likely not do well with me – at least initially. Those coming from a Hispanic or other cultural orientation, or even a strong specific religious or philosophical background may also be turned off since I do not fall into their perceived notion of being able to relate. Of course, utilizing the therapeutic alliance and even addressing these concerns right from the start should help to alleviate these concerns. Also – the language barrier would certainly have a negative impact in that if communication was weak, it would reinforce the cultural divide not to mention have a profound effect on how well the individual and I could relate. In those cases, I would simply refer the individual to someone within the counseling network to whom I would believe this person would do best with. 6. Limitations and strengths of your approach The strengths, weakness, and limitations of my approach would be the same as those apparent in the tools that I would employ in most cases. SFBT can be too quick to identify with the presenting problem and therefore missing the greater importance or that a solution would need to be reached in a relatively short period of time could have a negative impact on outcomes. REBT may not be as useful with individuals who have a difficult time separating their emotional responses from their thoughts or the belief or expectation that therapy should be unstructured, focus on insights, and the need to explore the causes of their current state of mind could also undermine the entire process. While common complaints for Erikson’s approach being that it focuses too much upon the social implications, ignoring the biological influences of personality and physical dimension and for having been derived with more of a male gender bias. However, by utilizing the integral framework devised by Ken Wilber and using the four quadrant approach to cover all the bases of the internal individual self (locus of control), the biological effect on personality and displayed behaviors, the cultural effect on the individuals belief system, and the social structures and laws which tend to reinforce these effects should help to alleviate or negate these effects leaving only the strengths or the best of each approach to having the greatest influence upon the sessions, the individual, and the possible outcomes being pursued. The strengths of all these approaches would be that they are all cognitive or rational approaches to dealing with current issues which have empirical data to back up their claims as solid approaches to working with individuals in the alleviation of their problems. Also, as backed by our class text, â€Å"SFBT has also been easily integrated with other theories, including cognitive behavioral, REBT, Adlerian, and reality therapy† (Seligman Reichenberg, 2010. Loc. 8094) leaving me to believe that this approach would indeed have the outcomes and positive interations I would hope to see. Finally, many of the strengths, weakness, and limitations would be my own internal belief systems and my level of comfort in working with certain populations as well as any life events that I might be expereincing when working with any population plus my own specific preferences. Continued therapuetic work, I believe, would be essential in both expereincing the approaches first hand as well as addressing any irrational beliefs that I may have. Works Cited Arlene F Harder, M. M. (2011). Support4change. com. Retrieved 2012, from Supportforchange. om: http://www. support4change. com/index. php? option=com_contentview=articleid=47Itemid=108 Beck, E. B. , Cowen, C. (1996). Spiral Dynamics: Mastering Values, Leadership and Change. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Black, S. (2004). A Way of Life: Core Energetics. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse. Kindle version Cowen, C. , Todorovic, N. , Lee, W. R. (2001). Clarewgraves. com/Theory. Retrieved from Clarewgraves. com: http://www. clarewgraves. com/home. html Graves, D. C. (1959). An Emergent Theory of Ethical Behavior Based Upon an Epigentic Model. Historical Collection of the work of Dr. Clare W. Graves of William R. Lee,, 12. Schwartz, T. (2005). The Power of Full Engagement: Managing Energy, Not Time, Is the Key to High Performance and Personal Renewal. NY, NY: The Free Press. Kindle version Seligman, L. , Reichenberg, L. (2010). Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy; systems, stra tegies, and skills (Kindle Version). Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Kindle version Wilber, K. (2000). Integral Psychology: Consciousness, Spirit, Psychology, Therapy. Boston: Shambhala Publications. Kindle version